Dictatorship, form of government in which one person or a small group possesses absolute power without effective limitations. The term dictatorship comes from the Latin title, which in the designated a temporary magistrate who was granted extraordinary powers in order to deal with state crises.
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Modern dictators, however, resemble ancient rather than ancient dictators. Ancient philosophers’ descriptions of the of and go far toward characterizing modern dictatorships. Dictators usually resort to force or fraud to gain despotic political power, which they maintain through the use of intimidation, terror, and the suppression of basic. They may also employ techniques of mass in order to sustain their public support.With the decline and disappearance in the 19th and 20th centuries of monarchies based on hereditary descent, dictatorship became one of the two chief forms of government in use by nations throughout the world, the other being constitutional. Rule by dictators has taken several different forms. In in the 19th century, various dictators arose after effective central authority had collapsed in the new nations recently freed from Spanish colonial rule. These, or self-proclaimed leaders, usually led a private army and tried to establish control over a territory before marching upon a weak national government.
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In and in are examples of such leaders. ( See.) Later 20th-century dictators in Latin America were different. They were national rather than provincial leaders and often were put in their position of power by nationalistic military officers. They usually allied themselves with a particular, and attempted either to maintain the interests of wealthy and privileged elites or to institute far-reaching left-wing social reforms.
The communist and fascist dictatorships that arose in various technologically advanced countries in the first half of the 20th century were distinctively different from the regimes of Latin America or the postcolonial dictatorships of Africa and Asia. Under and the under were the leading examples of such modern totalitarian dictatorships. The crucial elements of both were the identification of the state with a single mass party and of the party with its leader, the use of an official to legitimize and maintain the regime, the use of terror and to suppress dissent and stifle opposition, and the use of modern science and technology to control the economy and individual behaviour. ( See.) Soviet-type communist dictatorships arose in central and eastern Europe, and other countries in the wake of World War II, though most of them (as well as the Soviet Union itself) had collapsed by the last decade of the 20th century. Get exclusive access to content from our 1768 First Edition with your subscription.During times of domestic or foreign crisis, even most constitutional governments have conferred on the chief, and in some notable cases this provided the opportunity for duly elected leaders to overthrow and rule dictatorially thereafter. The proclamation of emergency rule, for example, was the beginning of the dictatorships of Hitler in Germany, in, in, in, and in. In other, however, constitutional arrangements have survived quite lengthy periods of crisis, as in and the during World War II, in which the use of extraordinary powers by the executive came to a halt with the end of the wartime emergency.
Expulsion of a racial groupIn early August 1972, the, ordered the expulsion of his country's, giving them 90 days to leave the country. At the time of the expulsion, there were approximately 80,000 individuals of South Asian descent (mostly ) in Uganda, of whom 23,000 had had their applications for citizenship both processed and accepted.
Although the latter were ultimately exempted from the expulsion, many chose to leave voluntarily. The expulsion took place against a backdrop of in Uganda, with Amin accusing a minority of the Asian population of disloyalty, non-integration and commercial malpractice, claims Indian leaders disputed.
Amin defended the expulsion by arguing that he was 'giving Uganda back to ethnic Ugandans'.Many of the expellees were and 27,200 subsequently emigrated to the. Of the other refugees who were accounted for; 6,000 went to, 4,500 refugees ended up in and 2,500 went to nearby. In total, some 5,655 firms, ranches, farms, and agricultural estates were reallocated, along with cars, homes and other household goods. Contents.Background The presence of South Asians in Uganda was the result of deliberate choices by the British administration (1894–1962). They were brought to the by the British to 'serve as a buffer between Europeans and Africans in the middle rungs of commerce and administration'. In addition, in the 1890s, 32,000 labourers from British India were under indentured labour contracts to work on the construction of the. Most of the surviving Indians returned home, but 6,724 individuals decided to remain in the after the line's completion.
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At the time of the expulsion, there were approximately 80,000 individuals of South Asian descent in Uganda, of whom 23,000 had had their applications for citizenship both processed and accepted. A further 50,000 were British passport holders, though Amin himself used the apparently exaggerated figure of 80,000 British passport holders in his initial expulsion speech.The British had invested in the education of the Asian minority, in preference to that of indigenous Ugandans. By the early 1970s, many Indians in Southeast Africa and Uganda were employed in the and businesses and was already engrained by the start of Amin's rule in February 1971. While not all Ugandan Asians were well off, they were on average better off than the indigenous communities, constituting 1% of the population while receiving a fifth of the national income. Indians were stereotyped as 'merely traders' and labelled as 'dukawallas' (an occupational term that degenerated into an anti-Indian slur during Amin's time ), who tried to cheat unsuspecting purchasers and looked out only for their own families. Conversely, it was 'not unusual to find that Indians possessed attitudes of superiority and negative pictures of the ability and efficiency of Africans'.
Racial segregation was institutionalised. Gated ethnic communities served elite healthcare and schooling services. Additionally, the tariff system in Uganda had historically been oriented toward the economic interests of South Asian traders.' S government had pursued a policy of 'Africanisation' which included policies targeted at Ugandan Asians.
The 1968 Committee on the 'Africanisation in Commerce and Industry', for example, had made far-reaching Indophobic proposals and a system of work permits and trade licenses was introduced in 1969 to restrict the role of non-citizen Indians in economic and professional activities. Nevertheless, Amin's policies represented a significant acceleration. In August 1971, Amin announced a review of the citizenship status awarded to Uganda's Asian community, followed by the declaration of a of Uganda's Asian population in October that year. In order to resolve the 'misunderstandings' regarding the role of Uganda's Asian minority in society, he then convened an Indian 'conference' for 7–8 December. In a memorandum presented on the second day of the conference, he set out his hope that 'the wide gap' between Ugandan Asians and Africans would narrow. While paying tribute to Indians' contribution to the economy and the professions, he accused a minority of the Asian population of disloyalty, non-integration and commercial malpractice, claims Indian leaders disputed. On the vexed question of citizenship, he said his government would recognise citizenship rights already granted, but all outstanding applications for citizenship (which by this point were thought to number more than 12,000) would be cancelled.This expulsion of an ethnic minority was not the first in Uganda's history as the country's minority, numbering approximately 30,000, had been expelled in 1969–70.
The expulsion. Idi Amin, pictured shortly after the expulsionOn 4 August 1972, Amin declared that Britain would need to take on responsibility for British subjects of Asian origin, accusing them of 'sabotaging Uganda's economy and encouraging corruption'. The deadline for British subjects to leave was confirmed as three months, which came to mean 8 November. On 9 August, the policy was expanded to include citizens of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. The position of the 23,000 Asians who had been granted Ugandan citizenship (and in particular those who held no other citizenship) was less clear. Not originally included, on 19 August, they were seemingly added to the list, before being re-exempted three days later following international protest. Many chose to leave rather than endure further intimidation, with only 4,000 known to have stayed.
Exemptions for certain professions were added, then later removed.The precise motivation for the expulsion remains unclear. Some of his former supporters suggest that it followed a dream in which, he claimed, had told him to expel them, as well as plot vengeance against the British government for refusing to provide him with arms to invade Tanzania. Although it is not confirmed, there was a rumour circulating around the Ugandan Asians that Amin fell in love with a married Indian woman. Her family sent her away to India to get away from him and this made Amin so angry that he wanted to expel every Indian from the country in retaliation. Amin defended the expulsion by arguing that he was giving Uganda back to the ethnic Ugandans:We are determined to make the ordinary Ugandan master of his own destiny, and above all to see that he enjoys the wealth of his country.
Our deliberate policy is to transfer the economic control of Uganda into the hands of Ugandans, for the first time in our country's history. The Asians only milked the cow, but they did not feed it to yield more milk.There are now Black faces in every shop and industry. All the big cars in Uganda are now driven by Africans, and not the former bloodsuckers.
The rest of Africa can learn from us.—PresidentAmin's decrees drew immediate condemnation, including from India, which severed diplomatic relations with Uganda. The Indian government warned Uganda of dire consequences, but took no action when Amin's government ignored the ultimatum. The United Kingdom froze a £10.4 million loan which had been arranged the previous year; Amin simply shrugged this off.Many of the Indians were citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies and 27,200 refugees subsequently emigrated to the. Of the other refugees who were accounted for, 6,000 went to, 4,500 ended up in and 2,500 went to nearby., and the took 1,000 refugees each, with smaller numbers emigrating to,. About 20,000 refugees were unaccounted for.
Only a few hundred remained behind. Reluctant to expand its newly introduced immigration quota, the British government had sought agreement from its British overseas territories to resettle them; however, only the responded positively. And similarly closed their borders with Uganda to prevent an influx of refugees.Some of those expelled were. The, the Imam of Nizari Ismailis phoned his long-time friend Canadian Prime Minister.
Trudeau's government agreed to allow thousands of Nizari Ismailis to emigrate to Canada. The exodus of Ugandan Asians took on a new level of urgency in the September following a telegram from Amin to the UN Secretary General, in which it appeared that Amin was sympathetic to Hitler's treatment of Jews and an airlift was organised. The UN dispatched the Executive Secretary of the, who attempted in vain to convince Amin to reverse his decision.Before the expulsion, Asians owned many large businesses in Uganda but the purge of Asians from Uganda's economy was virtually total. In total, some 5,655 firms, ranches, farms, and agricultural estates were reallocated, along with cars, homes and other household goods. For political reasons, most (5,443) were reallocated to individuals, with 176 going to government bodies, 33 being reallocated to semi-state organisations and 2 going to charities. Possibly the biggest winner was the state-owned, which gained control over some of the largest enterprises, though both the rapid nature of the growth and the sudden lack of experienced technicians and managers proved a challenge for the corporation, resulting in a restructuring of the sector in 1974–5.
'The Ugandan economy fell deep into a crisis under the strain of civil wars, the nationalization of certain industries and the expulsion of the Asians. By 1987, President Yoweri Museveni had inherited an economy that suffered the poorest growth rate in Africa.' Return Thousands of Gujaratis returned to Uganda starting in 1986 when assumed power. Museveni criticized Idi Amin's policies and invited the Gujaratis to return. According to Museveni, 'Gujaratis have played a lead role in Uganda's social and industrial development. I knew that this community can do wonders for my country and they have been doing it for last many decades.' The Gujaratis resurfacing in Uganda have helped rebuild the economy of East Africa, and are financially well settled.